“The Israelites of Salonika are, for the most part, of Spanish descent; they left the land of their birth in the year 1492, the victims of the cruel edict, which proclaimed their expulsion, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. Most of them retired to the East; a small number of them settled at Salonika. Sultan Bajazit, the son of Mehemet, who was reigning at this time, promised them full freedom of worship. Moreover, Jewish families had already taken up their abode at Salonika, in consequence of the security which they enjoyed.



The surest proof of their Spanish descent is the general use of the Spanish language amongst them, which is spoken with an accent peculiar to the Jews, and very much corrupted, as no study is bestowed upon it. Their mode of writing it is still more corrupt, so that it affords them little assistance in commercial affairs.

The Jewish youth are not accustomed to any kind of study; the most that the boys learn is Hebrew, but it also is acquired with a very bad accent, and in such an antiquated way, that most of them learn little else than the mechanical reading of the daily prayers. They only learn as much arithmetic as is indispensably necessary for the management of their affairs. It is an extremely rare case for a Jew to think of reading a book, unless he be an aspirant to the office of Rabbi. 

It is all the more to be regretted, that the instruction of the Jewish youth is confined within such narrow limits, not only here, but throughout the whole of the East, inasmuch as the Jews themselves make no effort to master the Turkish language. Thus, they are never in a position to enter into direct communication with the great mass of the population, and are always regarded, in the land of their birth, as a race that is merely tolerated and despised.

Scarcely has the young Israelite passed from childhood to youth, than he rushes into the whirlpool of public life. Most of them devote themselves to commerce. Very few of them are mechanics, and the few, that have learned trades, are very bad workmen. Many lounge about idly in the streets, trusting to accident for support, and thus soon lapse into a state of mendicity.

When the Jew is endowed with more than ordinary intelligence, he soon contrives, notwithstanding the defects in his early training, to acquire wealth here by his activity in business. 

It is a singular circumstance among the trading classes in the East, no matter to what religion they may belong, that fortunes are never transmitted to families by inheritance.

The cause of this deplorable state of things is to be found in the small amount of security which is enjoyed under the Turkish law, and in the despotic government. Individual families are plundered by the great; and communities by the pashas. Repeated outbreaks of pestilence, and frequent fires, augment the misery of the poor inhabitants. Always when ready to put forth their energies again, they are visited by some fresh disaster.


The charter of the Gül Hane has tended in some measure to ameliorate this deplorable state of affairs; already efforts are made in some Jewish families to secure their property to their future heirs. Still, these cases are so very exceptional, that the majority, who belong to the necessitous classes, live in the same miserable condition as before. 



Another circumstance, and perhaps the principal cause why the Levantine Jews are never able to make any certain provision for their children, is to be found in the fact that their children marry at a very early age. Young lads marry at 17 or 18, girls at 13 or 14 years of age. In this way, families are very numerous, and one can easily conceive in what a miserable condition a man often is at his thirtieth year, who must not only support his own family, some 10 or 12 in number, but receive into his house his sons who are already married, but not yet in a position to provide for their wives and children.

Oppressed by such heavy cares, the Jewish merchant never enters into any new enterprise, or embarks on a journey; he labours merely for the daily sum, that suffices for the wants of his numerous family.

The women are unaccustomed to any kind of intercourse with society, and to every species of labor. Married young, they are too soon overburdened with domestic cares, worn out, often prematurely old and sick. Of late years, women of the poorer class may be seen employed in weaving silk.



The laws of the Turkish Empire secure to its Jewish subjects the possession of immovable property, and it may be said with certainty, that every Jewish family is the proprietor of their own house. Yet their dwellings are so crowded together, that their health suffers in consequence, and they have always suffered most during the prevalence of any epidemic.

There are no husbandmen or gardeners amongst them; the reason of this may be, that the Israelites always feel the necessity of living close together, and of not being dispersed over the country.


A solitary village in our province contains the remains of a synagogue and of a Jewish burying ground, though for years no Jew has been resident in this village. A chronicle relates that the Jews, terrified by the great oppression to which they were subjected, gradually removed to Salonika. A few years ago, a Jew, who possessed landed property, was not in a position to superintend or to manage it. We hope that it will now be otherwise, but we regard the practice of agriculture by Jews, as difficult, if not impossible.

The Israelites of Salonika use the Spanish ritual in their devotions; they have twenty-seven synagogues, the largest of which bears the name of Talmud Tora. But it must be observed, that there are still two synagogues, which use the Italian and German rituals, and, judging by the date of their erection, these are the oldest. 


There are no Karaites, or other sects, but many Krypto Hebrews, followers of Sabatai Zewi; they are named Mimim in the land of “Mamini”, because they are professedly attached to Mohammedanism. They form a peculiar caste, and are equally distinct from the Jews and the Turks. They practice openly the rites of Islamism; still, they themselves confess that they form a peculiar sect. The Government does not recognize them as such, and treats them as Mussulmans, and admits them to the enjoyment of the same rights.

This sect again is divided into three different communities, which mutually hate and despise one another, in a manner which it is difficult to account for. They only intermarry with one another, and each sect with its own members; they never contract marriages with real Mohammedans.

The misery of early marriages, to which we have already alluded, is most clearly perceptible among them; the race is visibly dying out; scrofula, rickets, and all kinds of hereditary diseases are prevalent amongst them. Two of these sects are distinguished by their names; they call themselves Cavaglieros and Cognos, probably after their founders. It is known that one of these two sects continues to read the Jewish books, but professes great respect for the book of Zoar.

I cannot say much about the peculiar customs of the Minim, because they strictly conceal their religious mysteries, and, from fear that they may be surprised into the disclosure of any of them, they abstain from wine to such an extent, that they never drink water from a vessel, when they suspect that it may possibly have contained some spirituous liquor.

They never answer any question regarding their circumstances or forms of worship. It is asserted that a Min, who, some years ago, had betrayed one of their secrets, was put to death by his sect. 

Besides the Jews, who are Turkish subjects, there are many from other lands, who have placed themselves under the protection of their different consuls. The greater number of these foreign Jews is known here by the name of Franks. They differ little in their manners and customs from those born in the country, and only a few families send their children to France or Italy to be educated. There are tutors in some families, but such cases are extremely rare. 


All the leading members of the community have a vote in the election of the Rabbis. The oldest and most learned Rabbi, who has given proofs of his religious knowledge, is usually elected. A preference is usually shown for those, whose forefathers were Rabbis of distinction. When several, from their knowledge and influence, have an equal claim, four or five Head Rabbis are often chosen, the oldest of whom has the preeminence, while the duties of the office are transferred to the one best qualified. The community asks and receives in the name of the eldest, through the Head Rabbi at Constantinople, the right of investiture from the Turkish Porte, in virtue of which the newly elected Rabbi is recognized as spiritual head of the Israelites at Salonika. 


His jurisdiction only extends to the Jews of this city and to the communities of Seres Beolila [Bitola] and Donau [?] Scopia, and, more recently, Larissa, Tricala, and Janina, have been included in it. The authority of the Head Rabbi is very extensive; he has the right to pronounce sentence of punishment on both the soul and the body, if he has given previous intimation to the authorities, who carry it into execution. The Head Rabbi receives no fees from the community; his position, therefore, is not very splendid, so that he cannot support the external dignity of his office. He has no particular voice in the government of the community, but, in compensation, he presides over it and over all the rabbinical courts of justice, and all difficult and intricate questions must be submitted to him. 



There are four Rabbinical courts:—

-One for watching over and protecting the interests of widows and orphans.
-One for deciding differences in civil and commercial affairs.
-One for the management of immovable property; this institution is perfectly useless, as the authorities alone draw up the title-deeds, and in cases of dispute the decisions of the Rabbis have no effect.

-Lastly, one for religious questions and matters of conscience.


Besides these four institutions, there are others of less importance, which attend to the ordinances of religion; disputes between husband and wife; the inspection of meat exposed for sale, &c.

Besides these ecclesiastical courts, there is another, composed of five presidents, who are chosen annually, and who transact all kinds of business with the Government, and give counsel on local and general affairs, under the presidency of the Head Rabbi.



There is no book of taxes kept by the Government of the community. The one which is submitted to the Turkish Government is not correct, as the Jews, from their dread of oppression, always conceal their numbers. It cannot therefore be stated with certainty whether there are more or less than 3,500 families, with 16,000 Jewish subjects of Turkey, in Salonika. They have hitherto been looked upon by the Ottoman Government as merely a mass of men from whom a certain tax had to be raised, and for the payment of which the Israelitish community was held responsible. 


Every three years, a committee of four or five men is chosen, whose duty it is to regulate the taxes to be levied on the members of the Jewish community, according to their means. If the tax is too high for the means of a family, the complainant must confirm this by an oath; such a case, however, rarely occurs.

The community levies a tax chiefly on articles of consumption, as meat, wine, and other comestibles; it derives also certain fees from marriages, births, deaths, and legacies. While it takes advantage of these, it tries to levy direct taxes on individuals as little as possible, and the collection of these is always very unpopular. The poll-tax was formerly levied by the Government, which, in return, paid for the support of the Rabbis, of the different office-bearers, and of the poor and sick. This regulation was a very good one, inasmuch as the office-bearers and employees of the community were more independent of it, and treated with greater respect. Still there resulted an immense expenditure, from want of order, and ill-kept books, which could neither be checked nor punished. Since the alteration in the system of expenditure and the abolition of the former regulation, certain individuals represent the mass on which the taxes are leviable. 


There is a fixed tax on immovable property; every proprietor, whether he be a Greek, a Turk, or a Jew, escapes as a landed proprietor, while the Jewish community is responsible to the Government, for the present, and for all future time. This responsibility rests upon a previous liability, which amounted to 50,000 francs. When the system of taxes was changed, the community tried to get this ancient liability examined afresh, and thus to ameliorate their own condition; but this attempt met with little favour, and the community now owes a sum of 100,000 francs to some private individuals.

The feeling of benevolence is active enough. A great deal is done for the sick and the poor, but yet, even in this, there is a great want of system. The distribution of alms is very unjust, and idleness often meets with a larger amount of support than real helpless poverty.

With regard to learned men at Salonika, without alluding to those of past celebrity, I must mention in terms of laudation Rabbi Ascher Covo, who is now [still] alive. He is a man of irreproachable character, and his biblical and talmudical knowledge is at once profound and extensive. He is surrounded with prudent and learned men, is anxious to introduce new regulations consistent with the requirements of the community, and is supported in his endeavours by another worthy Rabbi, Mr. Abraham Gattegno, who holds the office of president, in the court for widows and orphans. 


There is not a single man who cultivates literature or poetry, and it is matter of regret that we possess neither historical works nor chronicles. It is affirmed that there are many documents, as well as manuscripts, scattered about, from which more minute information might be derived; but I have never seen any of them. After this statement of the circumstances of the Jews at Salonika, it only remains for me to answer a few of your questions:— 


Whether the Jews alone have fallen into such moral degradation, and what difference is perceptible between them and the Turkish and Greek communities?

What are the causes that have brought about and still keep them in their present deplorable condition?

What steps are necessary to effect an improvement?



In general, the Turk has not advanced with the spirit of the times more than the Jew. I speak here of the whole nation, and not of isolated individuals; so that, so far as concerns moral progress, there is no perceptible difference between them. A short time ago, the Greek raja was in the same deplorable condition; but the Greek revolution had a beneficial effect on the Christians of the Turkish Empire. The proximity of Greece is of the greatest advantage to the young men desirous of learning, who are sent there for their education. The Greeks, scattered over the whole of Europe, have found a central point of union, and support their brethren, who are subject to the Turkish Government. They send money for the erection of schools; they encourage and aid their co-religionists, and, within twenty years, can point to splendid results. The Greeks, born in this country, travel, acquire knowledge in foreign lands, and then introduce improvements at home, erect schools, and thus make progress in civilization. In point of intellect, the Greek is superior both to the Jew and the Turk.



The chief cause of the miserable condition of the Jews is to be found in the hostile spirit of the prevalent religion, and the hatred of the Government. There has been a change in this feeling of late years. The recent regulations have been conceived in a generous and liberal spirit; still, there will be great negligence in carrying them into execution, as events already prove. The Jew stands isolated and unsupported; his existence is confined to the circle of his own family; he does not feel the necessity of learning anything, while, if he remains ignorant, he is surrounded on all sides with difficulties which discourage him.

Besides these causes, I find that the Jews, chiefly Franks, who find their way here, possess only a superficial civilization. They propagate among the masses the belief, that schools, instruction, reforms, are a desecration of religion, and thus there has arisen, if not a feeling of hatred against western improvements, at least a feeling of distrust, and a great amount of indifference. The improved circumstances of the Jews of Salonika within a recent date, as well as their extensive business, have induced the necessity of imparting a higher education to the young men. Although the parents are very indifferent about the education of their children, and very parsimonious in meeting the necessary expense, the advantages of an improved education are already evident. The children are far in advance of their parents in the transaction of business, and in their knowledge of religion. They show that men may cast aside superstitious customs without becoming atheists. They are treated with consideration, and even the Rabbis are not unkindly disposed to them. 


The line of demarcation, which formerly separated the native from the foreign Jews, has grown less clearly defined of late years, and though the foreign Jews are not obliged to contribute to the expenses of the community, they have themselves set aside a sum for the relief of the poor.

The Head Rabbi of Constantinople, encouraged by the presence of Baron Rothschild, published rules for schools, and improvements for the metropolis and the provinces. Constantinople has already a French Israelitish school, which owes its existence to Mr. Albert Cohen, and meets all the requirements of that great city. 


The Imperial Hat Humayoun has bestowed equal civil rights on all religious sects, and good results are already evident. The desire for schools is becoming perceptible, the system of instruction in Hebrew has been much improved, and the youth will soon be instructed in the Turkish as well as the French language. Other cities in the empire will, I hope, not remain behind; and thus we may indulge the expectation that we have made a great step in advance.

Still, it is necessary to strengthen and encourage the desire of knowledge which has been thus fortunately excited. What a splendid example has been presented by the families Montefiore and Rothschild; what activity and self-denial by Mr. Albert Cohen and you, in furnishing your contribution in the name of Madam Herz Lämel! How anxious Mr. Phillipson was to stir up the Jews to benevolent undertakings for the benefit of the holy city by means of his journal! It is not the fault of the unfortunate Israelites of the East, as we have here shown, that they have fallen so low.

To enable them to work their way out of their present miserable state of degradation, they require material and moral support, so that this depressed race may no longer be heard saying; “We cannot, because we have not the means.” I do not mean that they must be assisted with alms; moral support is much more necessary; contributions for the general good, instead of benefits conferred on particular individuals. 


It were desirable, also, that travellers of talent and energy should direct their attention to us—examine into our circumstances—encourage the Rabbis, and give an impulse to the population.

In reply to your questions, I have described the sufferings of my brethren, and pointed out the sources from which assistance may flow to them. Perhaps you may succeed some day in bringing about a reform among our co-religionists. I authorize and request you to publish my report in the journals, or in any other way which you may deem most suitable for attaining the object which you have in view.”

“In 1837, he founded the firm of Allatini Frères, which later became Allatini and Modiano. The company managed the assets of the Darblay de Corbeil family, bought shares in mills, and was engaged in various other business enterprises.

Under his leadership, the Allatinis amassed capital and dealt directly with Europe’s wealthiest Jewish families, such as the Camondos and the Rothschilds, as well as the Sassoons of Baghdad.

With the collaboration of the Länderbank in Vienna, Allatini founded the Allatini Bank and opened branches in cities around Salonica. His only competitors were the Saül Modiano Bank and the Ottoman Bank.

In addition to banking, Allatini built a large steam-operated mill and brick factory in Salonica; opened beer, tobacco, soap, and bed linen factories; started a workshop for silkworm breeding; and invested in chrome, manganese, and pyrite mines in Serbia.”

“A notable first attempt at educational reform occurred during the 1850’s with the formation of the Hesed Olam Fund, created by Moise Allatini.”

“Along with the Morpurgo and Fernandez families, [Moïse] Allatini organized a group of visionary notables who helped to reform communal institutions in Salonica. In spite of a conflict between Allatini and Chief Rabbi Covo and other rabbis, they were able to establish a Hebrew school and a society for medical care (Heb. biqqur ḥolim).

In 1858, Allatini founded a French school, and hired a modern rabbi from Strasbourg as its principal, in an attempt to compromise with the religiously observant segment of the community. The school was forced to close after only five years, but during that time educated a great many children.

Allatini did not give up, and in 1873 he opened a school of the Alliance Israélite Universelle for boys of all faiths, which admitted 210 students in its first year of operation.

He then founded another school for girls, and a third, professional school. ”

“Nowhere the work of Alliance Israélite Universelle was more successful than in Salonika. It was supported and facilitated by the presence in the city of a significant group of Francos (...).

By the nineteenth century families as the Allatini, Fernandez and Modiano were some of the most successful entrepreneurs in Salonika. In touch with developments in Western Europe, intermediaries for and partners of Jewish economic interests there, they were the first to realize the significance of the growing economic presence in the Ottoman Levant of modern European capitalism. The Anglo-Ottoman trade convention of 1838 opened local markets to finished manufactured products of the rapidly industrializing West. Port cities in the Eastern Mediterranean grew quickly in this period, which also saw the increased use of steamboat after the Crimean War.

The ability to speak French, the lingua franca of trade and commerce, became an increasingly desirable skill. And the Francos spearheaded efforts to teach through Western-style education. Franco notables, such as the bankers and industrialists Moise Allatini and Salomon Fernandez [Moise’s and Darius’s brother in law], working closely with the modernizer Judah Nehama, opened new schools in Salonika even before the arrival of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. ”

“The company managed the assets of the Darblay de Corbeil family, bought shares in mills, and was engaged in various other business enterprises.

Under [Moïse’s] leadership, the Allatinis amassed capital and dealt directly with Europe’s wealthiest Jewish families, such as the Camondos and the Rothschilds, as well as the Sassoons of Baghdad.

With the collaboration of the Länderbank in Vienna, Allatini founded the Allatini Bank and opened branches in cities around Salonica. His only competitors were the Saül Modiano Bank and the Ottoman Bank.

In addition to banking, Allatini built a large steam-operated mill and brick factory in Salonica; opened beer, tobacco, soap, and bed linen factories; started a workshop for silkworm breeding; and invested in chrome, manganese, and pyrite mines in Serbia.”

“The emblematic figure of this extended family was Lazaro. Married to the offspring of an Italian family, named Emma Carolina Forti, Lazaro developed strong connections with Italy, due to commercial links as well as to charities for Italian philanthropic activities in England.

In 1893 he was elected President of the Italian Chamber in London and in 1901 he was appointed Consul-General of Italy. ”

“During the German occupation his tombstone was destroyed to its base by the Greeks, who did not remember [Moise Allatini’s] righteousness and good deeds towards members of their nation as well.”

“The eminence of the Allatini family in Salonica continued until the early twentieth century, when the Balkan wars and antisemitism led to the sale of its assets and the emigration, in 1911, of most of its members to other parts of Europe.

A number of buildings in Salonica still bear their name. The descendants of the Allatinis in France, England, Italy, and Israel continued to be scholars and artists throughout the twentieth century.

The Allatini family reflects the transmission of a cultural tradition across centuries and generations, a chain made up of significant figures who marked their times and impressed their contemporaries.”